This invention relates to programs for digital computers, and more particularly to code translation for conversion of instruction code which was written for one computer architecture to code for a more advanced architecture.
Computer architecture is the definition of the basic structure of a computer from the standpoint of what exactly can be performed by code written for this computer. Ordinarily, architecture is defined by such facts as the number of registers in the CPU, their size and content, the logic operations performed by the ALU, shifter, and the like, the addressing modes available, data types supported, memory management functions, etc. Usually, the architectural definition is expressed as an instruction set, and related elaboration.
As the technology used in constructing computers evolves, so does computer architecture. Semiconductor technology has served to make all structural features of a computer faster, less costly, smaller, lower in power dissipation, and more reliable. In view of such changes in the economics and performance of the computer hardware, it is necessary to make corresponding changes in architecture to take full advantage of existing hardware technology. For example, the CPU data paths have evolved from 16-bit, to 32-bit, to 64-bit. And, as memory has become cheaper, the addressing range has been greatly extended. A major departure in computer architecture, however, has been the retreat from adding more complex and powerful instructions, and instead architectures with reduced instruction sets have been shown to provide performance advantages.
Complex instruction set or CISC processors are characterized by having a large number of instructions in their instruction set, often including memory-to-memory instructions with complex memory accessing modes. The instructions are usually of variable length, with simple instructions being only perhaps one byte in length, but the length ranging up to dozens of bytes. The VAX.TM. instruction set is a primary example of CISC and employs instructions having one to two byte opcodes plus from zero to six operand specifiers, where each operand specifier is from one byte to many bytes in length. The size of the operand specifier depends upon the addressing mode, size of displacement (byte, word or longword), etc. The first byte of the operand specifier describes the addressing mode for that operand, while the opcode defines the number of operands: one, two or three. When the opcode itself is decoded, however, the total length of the instruction is not yet known to the processor because the operand specifiers have not yet been decoded. Another characteristic of processors of the VAX type is the use of byte or byte string memory references, in addition to quadword or longword references; that is, a memory reference may be of a length variable from one byte to multiple words, including unaligned byte references.
Reduced instruction set or RISC processors are characterized by a smaller number of instructions which are simple to decode, and by requiring that all arithmetic/logic operations be performed register-to-register. Another feature is that of allowing no complex memory accesses; all memory accesses are register load/store operations, and there are a small number of relatively simple addressing modes, i.e., only a few ways of specifying operand addresses. Instructions are of only one length, and memory accesses are of a standard data width, usually aligned. Instruction execution is of the direct hardwired type, as distinct from microcoding. There is a fixed instruction cycle time, and the instructions are defined to be relatively simple so that they all execute in one short cycle (on average, since pipelining will spread the actual execution over several cycles).
One advantage of CISC processors is in writing source code. The variety of powerful CISC instructions, memory accessing modes and data types should result in more work being done for each line of code (actually, compilers do not produce code taking full advantage of this). However, whatever gain in compactness of source code for a CISC processor is accomplished at the expense of execution time. Particularly as pipelining of instruction execution has become necessary to achieve performance levels demanded of systems presently, the data or state dependencies of successive instructions, and the vast differences in memory access time vs. machine cycle time, produce excessive stalls and exceptions, slowing execution. The advantage of a RISC processor is the speed of execution of code, but the disadvantage is that less is accomplished by each line of code, and the code to accomplish a given task is much more lengthy. One line of VAX code can accomplish the same as many lines of RISC code.
When CPUs were much faster than memory, it was advantageous to do more work per instruction, because otherwise the CPU would always be waiting for the memory to deliver instructions--this factor lead to more complex instructions that encapsulated what would be otherwise implemented as subroutines. When CPU and memory speed became more balanced, a simple approach such as that of the RISC concepts became more feasible, assuming the memory system is able to deliver one instruction and some data in each cycle. Hierarchical memory techniques, as well as faster access cycles, provide these faster memory speeds. Another factor that has influenced the CISC vs. RISC choice is the change in relative cost of off-chip vs. on-chip interconnection resulting from VLSI construction of CPUs. Construction on chips instead of boards changes the economics--first it pays to make the architecture simple enough to be on one chip, then more on-chip memory is possible (and needed) to avoid going off-chip for memory references. A further factor in the comparison is that adding more complex instructions and addressing modes as in a CISC solution complicates (thus slows down) stages of the instruction execution process. The complex function might make the function execute faster than an equivalent sequence of simple instructions, but it can lengthen the instruction cycle time, making all instructions execute slower; thus an added function must increase the overall performance enough to compensate for the decrease in the instruction execution rate.
The performance advantages of RISC processors, taking into account these and other factors, is considered to outweigh the shortcomings, and, were it not for the existing software base, most new processors would probably be designed using RISC features. In order for software base, including operating systems and applications programs, to build up to a high level so that potential and existing users will have the advantages of making use of the product of the best available programming talent, a computer architecture must exhibit a substantial market share for a long period of time. If a new architecture was adopted every time the technology advances allowed it, the software base would never reach a viable level. This issue is partly alleviated by writing code in high level languages; a program written in C should be able to be compiled to run on a VAX/VMS operating system, or a UNIX operating system, or on MS/DOS, and used on various architectures supported by these operating systems. For performance reasons, however, a significant amount of code is written in assembly language, particularly operating systems, and critical parts of applications programs. Assembly language programs are architecture-dependent.
Business enterprises (computer users, as well as hardware and software producers) have invested many years of operating background, including operator training as well as the cost of the code itself, in operating systems, applications programs and data structures using the CISC-type processors which were the most widely used in the past ten or fifteen years. The expense and disruption of operations to rewrite the code and data structures by hand to accommodate a new processor architecture may not be justified, even though the performance advantages ultimately expected to be achieved would be substantial.
Code translators are thus needed to ease the task of converting code written for one computer architecture to that executable on a more advanced architecture. The purpose of a code translator is to take in, as input, computer code written for execution on one type of architecture (e.g., VAX), and/or one operating system (e.g., VMS), and to produce as an output either executable code (object code) or assembly code for the advanced architecture. This is preferably to be done, of course, with a minimum of operator involvement. A particular task of a code translator is to detect latent error-producing features of the code, i.e., features that were acceptable in the prior use of the code as it executed on the previous operating system or architecture, but which may produce errors in the new environment.